Chapter 3: Emergence and Structure of Police Systems
History
Early origins of American policing traced back to English history. In medieval
England,
prior to Norman Conquest (William the Conqueror, 1066), formal policing was nonexistent. William and his successors brought
a more centralized government along with the establishment of circuit courts and common law.
Frankpledge system: In old English law, a system whereby the members of a tithing
had corporate responsibility for the behavior of all members over fourteen years old.
· Tithings-
Groups of 10 families banned together to protect one another
· "Hue
and cry"- call for help if there was a problem
· Hundred:
Group of 100 families (ten tithings) that had the responsibility to maintain order and try minor offenses
By 12th century, English society becoming more complex, resulting
in the evolvement of:
· Constable:
An official who administered and supervised the legal affairs of a small community. Forerunners of today's police officers.
· Watch system:
Men working under the local constable who were organized (usually through a church) to patrol at night and guard against disturbances
and "breaches of the peace". The watchmen and constables were primarily responsible to law enforcement in the cities.
· Shire reeve:
The senior law enforcement official in a shire (county). Forerunners of today's sheriffs.
· Justice
of the peace: Created in 1326 to assist the shire reeve. Eventually the constables (cities) and the shire reeves (counties)
were primarily responsible for the law enforcement duties while the justice of the peace took on judicial functions.
Eighteenth-Nineteenth Century Developments
The industrial revolution lead to the population moving
to the cities (urbanization). The result was crime, poverty, etc. The need developed for more effective law enforcement.
· Henry Fielding
organized the Bow Street Runners: They responded to crimes and conducted investigations and apprehended criminals. Forerunners
of the first detectives.
· 1829: Sir
Robert Peel established the first organized police force in England- The London Metropolitan Police
Department. Its members were known as Bobbies (Robert) and coppers (copper buttons on their uniforms).
·
American Development
The development of law enforcement in America
paralleled that of England:
· Sheriffs
became to primary law enforcement officer in the counties.
· Town marshals
became responsible for law enforcement in the cities.
· Vigilance
committees (vigilantes) developed to assist in law enforcement and apprehension.
· Due to
urbanization and associated problems, police departments developed during the 19th century: Boston
(1838), New York (1844), and Philadelphia
(1854).
· Early departments
attracted immigrants (Irish) due to pay and status. They were controlled through local politics. The police during this period
were generally untrained, unprofessional, and corrupt. Big city police were not well respected.
Reforms
Reform began at the turn of the 20th century:
· International
Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP): Formed in 1893 and became a leading voice for reform.
· August
Vollmer. Chief of Police in Berkeley, CA. Advocated officers having a college education. Helped to create the School
of Criminology at UC in 1931.
· O.W. Wilson:
Began to apply modern principle of management to police administration. Wrote Police Administration- greatly influenced the
subject of police administration. Many of the principles are still used today.
· 1960s and
70s: LEAA was created by the Safe Streets Act of 1968 partially as the result of the social turmoil of the 60s. The LEAA provided
money to local agencies for improvement in technology, training, and education. Improvements were noticeable by the 70s.
· 1980s:
Emergence of community policing concepts
Law Enforcement Today
Levels:
1. Local: Municipal/County
2. State
3. Federal
Local
Most police agencies in the United States
are small, the average size being about 25 sworn officers. The average size in Kentucky
is about 10.
Examples (# sworn officers):
- NYPD- 39,110
- LAPD- 12,500
- Lexington-Fayette
County Division of Police- 500
- Paducah
PD- 80
- Murray
PD- 30
- Lone Oak PD- 3 (full time)
Local law enforcement agencies generally derive their power from state law.
The Commonwealth of Kentucky provides
for the existence of local agencies through the Kentucky Revised Statutes:
95.019 Chief of police and
police force to have common law and statutory powers of constables and sheriffs.
(1) The chief of police and all members of the
police force in cities of the first through fifth classes shall possess all of the common law and statutory powers of constables
and sheriffs. They may exercise those powers, including the power of arrest for offenses against the state, anywhere in the
county in which the city is located, but shall not be required to police any territory outside of the city limits.
Sheriff: Considered the most important law enforcement officer in the county.
Generally jurisdiction of a sheriff’s office is limited to the unincorporated area within a county. Sheriff positions
across the county are often established by state constitutions. The sheriff, constable and other county offices are constitutional
offices in Kentucky.
State
The role of most state police agencies is to patrol the highways and regulate
traffic laws. However, some, like the Kentucky State Police, have general enforcement roles focusing primarily in the rural
and unincorporated areas. They, therefore, often work closely with sheriff departments.
First state police agencies:
1835- Texas Rangers
1905- Pennsylvania State
Police
Federal
Enforcement of criminal laws in the United States
historically has been viewed as the function of states, although states may and do delegate some of their powers to local
police agencies. The Constitution does not provide for a central police agency. It gives the federal government specific power
over only a limited number of crimes. The Constitution also provides that all powers not delegated to the federal government
are reserved to the states. The Constitution gives Congress the power to pass laws that are "necessary and proper" for the
exercise of congressional powers. Over the years Congress has passed statutes on federal crimes, and the U.S. Supreme Court
has upheld the power of Congress to do so.
Federal law enforcement includes federal prosecutors and federal police agencies.
The federal policing level is complex and encompasses more than fifty enforcement agencies, which are located within the departments
of agriculture, commerce, defense, interior, justice, treasury, and veterans affairs.
Some federal law enforcement agencies include:
Department of Justice-
· Federal
Bureau of Investigation
· Drug Enforcement
Administration
· Immigration
and Naturalization Service
· Bureau
of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms
Department of Treasury:
· Secret
Service
· Customs
Service
· Internal
Revenue Service
Others:
· Food and
Drug Administration
· Securities
and Exchange Commission
· U. S. Postal
Service
· Fish and
Wildlife Service
Future
General trends toward:
· Decentralization- Creation
of specialized units, substations, and direct response teams, community policing
· Centralization- Consolidation
of services
· More civilian employees
· New crime focus- more
proactive in response to domestic violence, disorderly conduct and drug possession/dealing charges
· New categories- high tech
crimes
· Efficiency- Police agencies
will be forced to do more with less
· Diversity. More minorities.
· Movement toward the use
of more private security
Technological changes:
· Computer aided identification
systems.
· Information technology.
More computers and computer analysis.
· DNA profiling.
· Administration/communications/training.
Community Policing
Community Policing: A policing philosophy involving a partnership between the police and communities to
solve problems.
Elements of Community Oriented Policing:
· Increased
interaction with citizens through foot patrol, bicycle patrols, and substations.
· Problem
solving. (May involve altering recruitment and training.)
· Decentralization.
· Power sharing.
(E.g., citizens work with police to solve crimes.)
· Inverted
pyramid effect.
· Reduce
community fear.
· Pro-action rather than
reaction
